Part of A: Alimentary tract and metabolism.
Endpoint. HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin, is the most commonly used biomarker of glycemic management and a surrogate endpoint for anti-diabetic drug approval [1].
HbA1c is not an Emax on concentration. It accumulates by glycation over the red cell lifespan, so it lags mean glucose and is written as a transformation of the glucose profile, not as a drug effect [1,2].
Typical structure. Provocations (OGTT, IVGTT) need the glucose-insulin feedback loop stated explicitly, and integrated models carrying both species have been built for intravenous and for oral provocation data [3,4].
Long trials drift. Type 2 diabetes progresses under treatment, so comparing drugs over a year needs disease progression on beta cell function and insulin sensitivity, not a fixed baseline [5].
Clamp readouts. Insulin degludec was profiled by the glucose infusion rate of a euglycemic clamp, a pharmacodynamic readout: in 65 healthy men, body mass index was inversely correlated with the 24 hour GIR AUC [6].
References
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Jauslin PM, Silber HE, Frey N, Gieschke R, Simonsson USH, Jorga K, et al. An
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de Winter W, DeJongh J, Post T, Ploeger B, Urquhart R, Moules I, et al. A mechanism-based disease progression model for comparison of long-term effects of pioglitazone, metformin and gliclazide on disease processes underlying
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10928-006-9008-2.
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Li T, Liu H, Li S, Yu H, Li J, Tan H, et al. The
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Euglycemic Glucose Clamp Study. Clin Pharmacokinet 2023;62:449–56.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40262-022-01207-1.